The
An inclined plane consists of a sloping surface; it is used for raising heavy bodies. The plane offers a in that the force required to move an object up the incline is less than the being raised (discounting ). The steeper the slope, or incline, the more nearly the required force approaches the actual weight. Expressed mathematically, the force F required to move a block D up an inclined plane without friction is equal to its weight W times the sine of the angle the inclined plane makes with the horizontal (θ). The equation is F = W sin θ.
The principle of the inclined plane is used widely-for example, in ramps and switchback roads, where a small force acting for a distance along a slope can do a large amount of work.
The
A lever is a bar or board that rests on a support called a fulcrum. A downward force exerted on one end of the lever can be transferred and increased in an upward direction at the other end, allowing a small force to lift a heavy weight.
All early people used the lever in some form, for example, for moving heavy stones or as digging sticks for land cultivation. The principle of the lever was used in the swape, or , a long lever pivoted near one end with a platform or water container hanging from the short arm and counterweights attached to the long arm. A man could lift several times his own weight by pulling down on the long arm. This device is said to have been used in Egypt and India for raising water and lifting soldiers over battlements as early as 1500 bce .
The
A wedge is an object that tapers to a thin edge. Pushing the wedge in one direction creates a force in a sideways direction. It is usually made of metal or wood and is used for splitting, lifting, or tightening, as in securing a hammer head onto its handle.
The wedge was used in prehistoric times to split logs and rocks; an is also a wedge, as are the teeth on a saw. In terms of its mechanical function, the screw may be thought of as a wedge wrapped around a cylinder.
The
A wheel and axle is made up of a circular frame (the wheel) that revolves on a shaft or rod (the axle). In its earliest form it was probably used for raising weights or water buckets from wells.
Its principle of operation is best explained by way of a device with a large and a small gear attached to the same shaft. The tendency of a force, F , applied at the radius R on the large gear to turn the shaft is sufficient to overcome the larger force W at the radius r on the small gear. The force amplification, or , is equal to the ratio of the two forces (W :F ) and also equal to the ratio of the radii of the two gears (R :r ).
If the large and small gears are replaced with large- and small-diameter drums that are wrapped with ropes, the wheel and axle becomes capable of raising weights. The weight being lifted is attached to the rope on the small drum, and the operator pulls the rope on the large drum. In this arrangement the mechanical advantage is the radius of the large drum divided by the radius of the small drum. An increase in the mechanical advantage can be obtained by using a small drum with two radii, r 1 and r 2 , and a pulley block. When a force is applied to the large drum, the rope on the small drum winds onto D and off of d.
A measure of the force amplification available with the pulley-and-rope system is the velocity ratio, or the ratio of the at which the force is applied to the rope (V F ) to the velocity at which the weight is raised (V W ). This ratio is equal to twice the radius of the large drum divided by the difference in the radii of the smaller drums D and d. Expressed mathematically, the equation is V F /V W = 2R /(r 2 - r 1). The actual mechanical advantage W /F is less than this velocity ratio, depending on friction. A very large mechanical advantage may be obtained with this arrangement by making the two smaller drums D and d of nearly equal radius.
For starters, allow me to introduce the major hole in English linguistics terminology. And these three example sentences will help me:
- A cat chases a dog
- To think is human
- She ate her breakfast
Now a question: how do you refer to the syntactic role that the highlighted words occupy in the sentences? Or else: how do you refer to the slot between subject and object that ties the two together?
The answer: there is no unambiguous word in English to refer to it.
Usually, linguists resort to one of two options:
A) We could call it a verb . That’s how it’s called in language typology: in SVO structure, for example, the letters stand for “subject-verb-object”.
The problem is, though, that ‘verb’ is already a name for a word class. Word classes (e.g. , ‘noun’, ‘adjective’, ‘adverb’) are word categories by their morphology (common word endings) and syntactic roles that they could take. While syntactic roles (e.g. , ‘subject’, ‘object’, ‘attribute’) are particular slots in a sentence that don’t exist outside of a sentence.
Just because the word class of a verb tends to occupy the syntactic role in question doesn’t mean that the two are the same. And to illustrate it, please go back to the second example sentence. Is ‘to think’ a verb, but suddenly… not a verb?
So, when people say that they’ve just invented a verbless language, you could guess all you want what they mean. Is it like:
- “My language has usual rigid syntax like in English, German or Japanese - but there are no word classes.”
Or do they mean:
- “My language has completely alien syntax. It doesn’t rely on SVO or similar pattern, and has no subjects or objects as well.”
B) We could also call it a predicate . However, not only this term has nothing to do with the syntactic slot in question - it has nothing to do with linguistics at all .
It’s a term from logic.
Any statement, be it a sentence in whatever language or some logical formula, has a predicate structure: meaning that in every statement, there’s something that we make a statement about (a logical subject), and the actual statement about the subject (a predicate).
Linguists have adopted the term to refer to the syntactic slot between S and O - but technically, predicate isn’t that. In a sentence:
- Helen is a sophomore student from Stanford .
the entire highlighted part is a predicate. The sentence is a statement about Helen (hence, she’s a subject). The rest of the sentence is new information about her that we state - a predicate. If you’re familiar with programming, we’ve kinda applied a function: Helen is our variable to modify, and the statement is the actual function that changes the properties of the variable.
Now, for you to understand the point better, let’s break the default logical structure of the sentence with a dialogue:
Joe: “Tell me something interesting about Stanford!”
Moe: “Well, Helen is a sophomore student from Stanford.”
Now suddenly, Stanford is a logical subject. Firstly, Joe sets the subject for discussion, and then, Moe makes a statement about it: that Helen studies there. The university is what we’re interested in, while Helen is now part of the logical predicate.
Obviously, the sentence structure doesn’t agree with it: Helen is the syntactic subject in the sentence, and you don’t change that without shuffling the actual words around. But the dialogue has certain logical composition nonetheless, which doesn’t give a damn about the words or the language. Logic is sort-of above languages, and searching for predicate is not about cracking your head over syntax: you have to analyse the actual meaning of the statement made by a sentence.
This is why I am a strong proponent of introducing a new, separate word for “V” syntactic slot. Personally, I prefer to call it verbicate (good thing that it keeps the ‘V’ letter in SVO). So here’s another exotic option for you:
C) Call it a verbicate - be unambiguous.
Now that the prelude is over - back to your actual question.
If by “a language without predicate ” you mean “a language without verbicate ”, then absolutely yes . I’ve already covered this in , so I won’t be repeating. But in short: verbicate-based syntax is just one type of syntax that by no means is the only possible. It has proven itself to be effective (no kidding - ten thousand years of being virtually the exclusive type of syntax in natural human languages), and yet syntax could be anything. There probably are millions of ways to build a sentence, and what you’re after has been done repeatedly by many conlangers.
If by “predicate” you mean the actual predicate, then it’s kinda yes/no answer:
Yes , a language can be without predicates, because no language has predicates. It’s not a property or part of languages at all, and you can’t use linguistical methods to study or look for predicates. Just because a language is a tool to convey predicated statements doesn’t mean that the tool must inherit the property of the tooled.
No , a language cannot be spoken without predicates. Regardless of how grotesque or alien a language is, communication is still communication: the exchange of statements between interlocutors. When you speak, you convey information about something, meaning that every statement regardless of language can be broken down into a logical subject and what’s being stated about it.
In some languages, the grammar might more-or-less align with logical predicate structure; in other languages, it may not at all. But the statements remain the statements. Even if you ditched languages and used pictures to communicate - you still would be making statements, and thus use predicates.
Damn, even when my cat meows for food, she makes a statement that has a subject and a predicate.
To sum up , your question is roughly the same as “can a language exist without time? ”: before you ask, make sure you’re talking about tense , because time is kinda out of languages’ scope.
Практическое занятие № 73
Тема: «Машины и механизмы»
Цель: Формирование знаний об устройстве машин и различных механизмов.
Совершенствование лексико-грамматических навыков по теме.
Активизация лексики по теме в аргументированных высказываниях.
Оборудование: 1. Учебники; 2. Раздаточный материал; 3. Интернет-ресурсы.
Задание 1. Прочитайте и переведите текст «Mechanisms and Simple Machines» (25 минут):
Mechanism : the fundamental physical or chemical processes involved in or responsible for an action, reaction or other natural phenomenon.
Machine : an assemblage of parts that transmit forces, motion and energy in a predetermined manner.
Simple Machine : any of various elementary mechanisms having the elements of which all machines are composed. Included in this category are the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and the screw.
The word mechanism has many meanings. In kinematics , a mechanism is a means of transmitting, controlling, or constraining relative movement. Movements which are electrically, magnetically, pneumatically operated are excluded from the concept of mechanism. The central theme for mechanisms is rigid bodies connected together by joints.
A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and connected so that they move with definite relative motions and transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. A machine has two functions: transmitting definite relative motion and transmitting force. These functions require strength and rigidity to transmit the forces.
The term mechanism is applied to the combination of geometrical bodies which constitute a machine or part of a machine. Amechanism may therefore be defined as a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and connected so that they move with definite relative motions with respect to one another.
Although a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering components are rigid because their deformations and distortions are negligible in comparison with their relative movements.
The similarity between machines and mechanisms is that
they are both combinations of rigid bodies
the relative motion among the rigid bodies are definite.
Задание 2. Выполните пересказ текста (15 минут):
Задание 3. Объясните разницу между двумя рисунками (15 минут):
The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines transform energy to do work, while mechanisms so not necessarily perform this function. The term machinery generally means machines and mechanisms. Figure 1 shows a picture of the main part of a diesel engine. The mechanism of its cylinder-link-crank parts is a slider-crank mechanism , as shown in Figure 2 .
| Рис.1. Cross section of a power cylinder in a diesel engine | Рис.2. Skeleton outline |
Задание 4. Объясните разницу между двумя рисунками (15 минут):
| Рис.1. Gear train
| Рис.2. Compound gears
|
Задание 5. Объясните, что изображено на этих схемах, составьте сообщение (20 минут):
|
| Рис.2 The screw jack
|
Рис.1. Inclined plane
Критерии:
Оценка «5» - Поставленные задачи (составление аргументированных монологических высказываний, составление вопросов, чтение, перевод текста, ответы на вопросы) решены полностью, применение лексики адекватно коммуникативной задаче, грамматические ошибки либо отсутствуют, либо не препятствуют решению коммуникативной задачи
Оценка «4» - Коммуникативная задача решена полностью, но понимание текста незначительно затруднено наличием грамматических и/или лексических ошибок.
Оценка «3» - Коммуникативная задача решена, но понимание текста затруднено наличием грубых грамматических ошибок или неадекватным употреблением лексики.
Оценка «2» - Коммуникативная задача не решена ввиду большого количества лексико-грамматических ошибок или недостаточного объема текста.
1) Восковская А.С., Карпова Т.А. Английский язык. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2014.
2)Агабекян И. Английский язык для СПО. – Ростов н/Дону: Феникс, 2012.
Контрольные вопросы :
1. What is this text about? 2.What do you think about it? 3.Can we start such production now? 4. What meanings has the word mechanism have?
Topic: Simple Machines PSSA: 3.4.7.C / S8.C.3.1
Objective: TLW compare different types of simple machines. TLW compare different types of simple machines. TLW explain the difference between a simple machine and a compound machine. TLW explain the difference between a simple machine and a compound machine.
MI #1: Levers A lever is a simple machine that has a bar that pivots on a fixed point called a fulcrum. A lever is a simple machine that has a bar that pivots on a fixed point called a fulcrum. Levers are classified based on the location of the input force, load, and the fulcrum. Levers are classified based on the location of the input force, load, and the fulcrum.
MI #2: Classes of Levers First class levers have the fulcrum between the input force and the load. First class levers have the fulcrum between the input force and the load. - Includes see-saws Second class levers have the load between the input force and the fulcrum. Second class levers have the load between the input force and the fulcrum. - Includes wheelbarrows Third class levers have the input force between the load and the fulcrum. Third class levers have the input force between the load and the fulcrum. - Includes hammers and fishing poles
Mi #3: Pulleys A pulley is a simple machine that has a grooved wheel that holds a rope or a chain. A pulley is a simple machine that has a grooved wheel that holds a rope or a chain. There are three types of pulleys; fixed, movable, and block and tackle. There are three types of pulleys; fixed, movable, and block and tackle.
MI #4: Wheel and Axle A wheel and axle consists of two circular objects of different sizes that rotate on the same axis. A wheel and axle consists of two circular objects of different sizes that rotate on the same axis. The axle rotates a smaller distance than the wheel, which results in a greater output force. The axle rotates a smaller distance than the wheel, which results in a greater output force.
MI #5: Inclined Planes An inclined plane is a straight slanted surface. An inclined plane is a straight slanted surface. A wedge is a pair of inclined planes that move. A wedge is a pair of inclined planes that move. A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
MI #6: Compound Machines A compound machine is a machine that is made of two or more simple machines working together. A compound machine is a machine that is made of two or more simple machines working together. Because compound machines have more moving parts, their mechanical efficiency is typically low. Because compound machines have more moving parts, their mechanical efficiency is typically low.
So What…? Real Life Application Machines make work easier, so it is important to understand the different types of simple machines. Machines make work easier, so it is important to understand the different types of simple machines.
Simple machines are extremely important to everyday life. They make stuff that is normally difficult a piece of cake. There are several types of simple machines. The first simple machine is a lever. A lever consists of a fulcrum, load, and effort force. A fulcrum is the support. The placing of the fulcrum changes the amount of force and distance it will take in order to move an object. The load is the applied force. The effort force is the force applied on the opposite side of the load.
Levers can be placed in three classes. The 1st class levers are objects like pliers where the fulcrum is at the center of the lever. The 2nd class of levers are objects that have the fulcrum on the opposite side of the applied force like a nutcracker. The 3rd and final class is objects like crab claws. These objects of the load at one end and the fulcrum on the other.
An inclined plane is another simple machine.
Inclined planes are also known as ramps. Ramps make a trade off between distance and force. No matter how steep the ramp, the work is still the same. A winding road on a mountain side is a good example of a ramp. Some simple machines are modified inclined planes. The wedge is one of those machines. One or two inclined planes make up a wedge. Saws, knives,needles, and axes are made from wedges. The screw is another modified inclined plane. Screws decrease the force but increase the distance. The ridges are called threads. A couple of simple machines are made with wheels. The wheel and axle is one of these machines.
These are made with a rod joined to the center of a wheel. They can either increase distance or force, depending on the size of the wheel. The pulley is another machine that uses wheels. The are a wheel with a groove in the center with a rope or chain stretched around it. The load attaches to one end and the effort is applied to the other on all pulleys. There are two types of pulleys. The fixed pulley stays in one place while the wheel spins. Movable pulleys attach to objects. Several pulleys can be used at one time. A good example of a pulley system is an escalator. Simple machines make up compound machines. We use these machines daily. Life would be difficult without simple machines.
Cite this page
Simple Machines. (2016, Dec 12). Retrieved from ">APA "Simple Machines." StudyMoose , 12 Dec 2016, ">MLA StudyMoose. (2016). Simple Machines . . Available at: ">Harvard "Simple Machines." StudyMoose, Dec 12, 2016. Accessed January 17, 2020.